自旋
维基百科,自由的百科全书
在量子力学中,自旋是与粒子所具有的内禀角动量,雖然有時會與古典力學中的自轉相類比,但實際上本質是迥異的。古典意義中的自轉,是物體對於其質心的旋轉,比如地球每日的自轉是順著一個通過地心的極軸所作的轉動。
首先對基本粒子提出自轉與相應角動量概念的是1925年由 Ralph Kronig 、George Uhlenbeck 與 Samuel Goudsmit 三人所為。然而爾後在量子力學中,透過理論以及實驗驗證發現基本粒子可視為是不可分割的點粒子,是故物體自轉無法直接套用到自旋角動量上來,因此僅能將自旋視為一種內在性質,為粒子與生俱來帶有的一種角動量,並且其量值是量子化的,無法被改變(但自旋角動量的指向可以透過操作來改變)。
自旋對原子尺度的系統格外重要,諸如單一原子、質子、電子甚至是光子,都帶有正半奇數(1/2、3/2等等)或含零正整數(0、1、2)的自旋;半整數自旋的粒子被稱為費米子(如電子),整數的則稱為玻色子(如光子)。複合粒子也帶有自旋,其由組成粒子(可能是基本粒子)之自旋透過加法所得;例如質子的自旋可以從夸克自旋得到。
目录 |
[编辑] 概論
自旋角動量是系統的一個可觀測量,它在空間中的三個分量和軌道角動量一樣滿足相同的对易关系。每个粒子都具有特有的自旋。粒子自旋角动量遵从角动量的普遍规律,p=[J(J+1)]0.5h为自旋角动量量子数 ,J = 0,1 / 2 , 1,3/2,……。自旋为半奇数的粒子称为费米子,服从费米 - 狄拉克统计;自旋为0或整数的粒子称为玻色子,服从玻色-爱因斯坦统计 。复合粒子的自旋是其内部各组成部分之间相对轨道角动量和各组成部分自旋的矢量和,即按量子力学中角动量相加法则求和。已发现的粒子中,自旋为整数的,最大自旋为4;自旋为半奇数的,最大自旋为3/2。
自旋是微观粒子的一种性质。自旋为0的粒子从各个方向看都一样,就像一个点。自旋为1的粒子在旋转360度后看起来一样。自旋为2的粒子旋转180度,自旋为1/2的粒子必须旋转2圈才会一样。 自旋为1/2的粒子组成宇宙的一切,而自旋为0,1,2的粒子产生物质粒子间的力。物质粒子服从泡利不相容原理。
[编辑] 發展史
自旋的發現,首先出現在鹼金屬元素的發射光譜課題中。於1924年,沃爾夫岡·包立首先引入他稱為是「雙值量子自由度」(two-valued quantum degree of freedom),與最外殼層的電子有關。这使他可以形式化地表述泡利不相容原理,即没有两个电子可以在同一时间共享相同的量子态。
泡利的“自由度”的物理解释最初是未知的。Ralph Kronig,Landé的一位助手,于1925年初提出它是由电子的自转产生的。当泡利听到这个想法时,他予以严厉的批驳,他指出为了产生足够的角动量,电子的假想表面必须以超过光速运动。这将违反相对论。很大程度上由于泡利的批评,Kronig决定不发表他的想法。
当年秋天,两个年轻的荷兰物理学家产生了同样的想法,George Uhlenbeck和Samuel Goudsmit。在保羅·埃倫費斯特的建议下,他们以一个小篇幅发表了他们的结果。它得到了正面的反应,特别是在Llewellyn Thomas消除了实验结果与 Uhlenbeck 和 Goudsmit 的(以及 Kronig 未发表的)计算之间的两个矛盾的系数之后。这个矛盾是由于电子指向的切向结构必须纳入计算,附加到它的位置上;以数学语言来说,需要一个纤维丛描述。切向丛效应是相加性的和相对论性的(比如在c趋近于无限时它消失了);在没有考虑切向空间朝向时其值只有一半,而且符号相反。因此这个复合效应与后来的相差系数2(Thomas precession)。
尽管他最初反对这个想法,泡利还是在1927年形式化了自旋理论,运用了埃爾文·薛丁格和沃納·海森堡发现的现代量子力学理论。他开拓性地使用泡利矩阵作为一个自旋算子的群表述,并且引入了一个二元旋量波函数。
泡利的自旋理论是非相对论性的。然而,在1928年,保羅·狄拉克发表了狄拉克方程式,描述了相对论性的电子。在狄拉克方程中,一个四元旋量所谓的“狄拉克旋量”被用于电子波函数。在1940年,泡利证明了“自旋统计定理”,它表述了费米子具有半整数自旋,玻色子具有整数自旋。
[编辑] 自旋量子数
[编辑] 基本粒子的自旋
对于像光子、电子、各种夸克这样的基本粒子,理论和实验研究都已经发现它们所具有的自旋无法解释为它们所包含的更小单元围绕质心的自转(参见经典电子半径)。由于这些不可再分的基本粒子可以认为是真正的点粒子,因此自旋与质量、电量一样,是基本粒子的内禀性质。
其中
是约化普朗克常数,而自旋量子数是整数或者半整数(0, 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2,……),自旋量子数可以取半整数的值,这是自旋量子数与轨道量子数的主要区别,后者的量子数取值只能为整数。自旋量子数的取值只依赖于粒子的种类,无法用现有的手段去改变其取值(不要与自旋的方向混淆,见下文)。
例如,所有电子具有 s = 1/2,自旋为1/2的基本粒子还包括正电子、中微子和夸克,光子是自旋为1的粒子,理论假设的引力子是自旋为2的粒子,理论假设的希格斯玻色子在基本粒子中比较特殊,它的自旋为0。
[编辑] 复合粒子的自旋
The spin of composite particles, such as protons, neutrons, and atomic nuclei is usually understood to mean the total angular momentum, which is the sum of the spins and orbital angular momenta of the constituent particles. Such a composite spin is subject to the same quantization condition as any other angular momentum.
Composite particles are often referred to as having a definite spin, just like elementary particles; for example, the proton is a spin-1/2 particle. This is understood to refer to the spin of the lowest-energy internal state of the composite particle (i.e., a given spin and orbital configuration of the constituents).
It is not always easy to deduce the spin of a composite particle from first principles; for example, even though we know that the proton is a spin-1/2 particle, the question of how this spin is distributed among the three internal valence quarks and the surrounding sea quarks and gluons is an active area of research.
[编辑] 原子和分子的自旋
原子和分子的自旋是原子或分子中未成对电子自旋之和,未成对电子的自旋导致原子和分子具有顺磁性。
[编辑] 自旋的统计关系
The spin of a particle has crucial consequences for its properties in statistical mechanics. Particles with half-integer spin obey Fermi-Dirac statistics, and are known as fermions. They are required to occupy antisymmetric quantum states (see the article on identical particles.) This property forbids fermions from sharing quantum states – a restriction known as the Pauli exclusion principle. Particles with integer spin, on the other hand, obey Bose-Einstein statistics, and are known as bosons. These particles occupy "symmetric states", and can therefore share quantum states. The proof of this is known as the spin-statistics theorem, which relies on both quantum mechanics and the theory of special relativity. In fact, the connection between spin and statistics is one of the most important and remarkable consequences of special relativity.
[编辑] 自旋的方向
(翻译自Wikepedia-spin英文页面http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics)#cite_note-0)
[编辑] 自旋投影量子数与自旋多重态
在经典力学中,一个粒子的角动量不仅有大小(取决于粒子转动的快慢),而且有方向(取决于粒子的旋转轴)。量子力学中的自旋同样有方向,但是是以一种更加微妙的形式出现的。在量子力学中,对任意方向的角动量分量的测量只能取如下值:
其中s是之前章节讨论过的自旋量子数。可以看出对于给定的s,"s_z" 可以取“2s+1”个不同的值。例如 对于自旋为1/2的粒子,"s_z"只能取两个不同的值,+1/2或-1/2。相应的量子态为粒子自旋分别指向+z或-z方向,一般我们把这两个量子态叫做“spin-up"和"spin-down"。 对于一个给定的量子态,可以给出一个自旋矢量 / langS / rang,它的各个分量是自旋沿着各坐标轴分量的数学期望值,即
. 这个矢量描述自旋所指的“方向”,对应于经典物理下旋转轴的概念。这个矢量在实际做量子力学计算时并不十分有用,因为它不能被直接测量--根据不确定性原理,sx, sy and sz不能同时有确定值。但是对于被置于同一个量子态的大量粒子,例如使用Stern-Gerlach仪器得到的粒子,自旋矢量确实有良好定义的实验意义。
[编辑] 自旋矢量
For a given quantum state, it is possible to describe a spin vector
whose components are the expectation values of the spin components along each axis, i.e.,
. This vector describes the "direction" in which the spin is pointing, corresponding to the classical concept of the axis of rotation. It turns out that the spin vector is not very useful in actual quantum mechanical calculations, because it cannot be measured directly — sx, sy and sz cannot possess simultaneous definite values, because of a quantum uncertainty relation between them. However, for statistically large collections of particles that have been placed in the same pure quantum state, such as through the use of a Stern-Gerlach apparatus, the spin vector does have a well-defined experimental meaning: It specifies the direction in ordinary space in which a subsequent detector must be oriented in order to achieve the maximum possible probability (100%) of detecting every particle in the collection. For spin-1/2 particles, this maximum probability drops off smoothly as the angle between the spin vector and the detector increases, until at an angle of 180 degrees —that is, for detectors oriented in the opposite direction to the spin vector—the expectation of detecting particles from the collection reaches a minimum of 0%.
As a qualitative concept, the spin vector is often handy because it is easy to picture classically. For instance, quantum mechanical spin can exhibit phenomena analogous to classical gyroscopic effects. For example, one can exert a kind of "torque" on an electron by putting it in a magnetic field (the field acts upon the electron's intrinsic magnetic dipole moment — see the following section). The result is that the spin vector undergoes precession, just like a classical gyroscope.
Mathematically, quantum mechanical spin is not described by a vector as in classical angular momentum. It is described using a family of objects known as spinors. There are subtle differences between the behavior of spinors and vectors under coordinate rotations. For example, rotating a spin-1/2 particle by 360 degrees does not bring it back to the same quantum state, but to the state with the opposite quantum phase; this is detectable, in principle, with interference experiments. To return the particle to its exact original state, one needs a 720 degree rotation. A spin zero particle can only have a single quantum state, even after torque is applied. Rotating a spin-2 particle 180 degree can bring it back to the same quantum state and a spin-4 particle should be rotated 90 degrees to bring it back to the same quantum state. The spin 2 particle can be analogous to a straight stick that looks the same even after it is rotated 180 degrees and a spin 0 particle can be imagined as sphere which looks the same after whatever angle it is turned through.
[编辑] 自旋与磁矩
Particles with spin can possess a magnetic dipole moment, just like a rotating electrically charged body in classical electrodynamics. These magnetic moments can be experimentally observed in several ways, e.g. by the deflection of particles by inhomogeneous magnetic fields in a Stern-Gerlach experiment, or by measuring the magnetic fields generated by the particles themselves.
The intrinsic magnetic moment μ of an elementary particle with charge q, mass m, and spin S, is
where the dimensionless quantity g is called the g-factor. For exclusively orbital rotations it would be 1.
The electron, being a charged elementary particle, possesses a nonzero magnetic moment. One of the triumphs of the theory of quantum electrodynamics is its accurate prediction of the electron g-factor, which has been experimentally determined to have the value −2.002 319 304 3622(15), with the digits in parentheses denoting measurement uncertainty in the last two digits at one standard deviation.[1] The value of 2 arises from the Dirac equation, a fundamental equation connecting the electron's spin with its electromagnetic properties, and the correction of 0.002 319 304… arises from the electron's interaction with the surrounding electromagnetic field, including its own field.[來源請求]
Composite particles also possess magnetic moments associated with their spin. In particular, the neutron possesses a non-zero magnetic moment despite being electrically neutral. This fact was an early indication that the neutron is not an elementary particle. In fact, it is made up of quarks, which are electrically charged particles. The magnetic moment of the neutron comes from the spins of the individual quarks and their orbital motions.
The neutrinos are both elementary and electrically neutral. The minimally extended Standard Model that takes into account finite neutrino masses, predicts neutrino magnetic moments of:[2]
where the μν are the neutrino magnetic moments, mν are the neutrino masses, and μB is the Bohr magneton. New physics above the electroweak scale could, however, lead to significantly higher neutrino magnetic moments. It can be shown in a model independent way that neutrino magnetic moments larger than ˜10 − 14μB are unnatural, because they would also lead to large radiative contributions to the neutrino mass. Since the neutrino masses cannot exceed
eV, these radiative corrections must then be assumed to be fine tuned to cancel out to a large degree.[3]
The measurement of neutrino magnetic moments is an active area of research. Template:As of, the latest experimental results have put the neutrino magnetic moment at less than 1.2 × 10-10 times the electron's magnetic moment.
In ordinary materials, the magnetic dipole moments of individual atoms produce magnetic fields that cancel one another, because each dipole points in a random direction. Ferromagnetic materials below their Curie temperature, however, exhibit magnetic domains in which the atomic dipole moments are locally aligned, producing a macroscopic, non-zero magnetic field from the domain. These are the ordinary "magnets" with which we are all familiar.
The study of the behavior of such "spin models" is a thriving area of research in condensed matter physics. For instance, the Ising model describes spins (dipoles) that have only two possible states, up and down, whereas in the Heisenberg model the spin vector is allowed to point in any direction. These models have many interesting properties, which have led to interesting results in the theory of phase transitions.
[编辑] 量子力學中關於自旋的數學表示
[编辑] 自旋算符
其中 εijk 为列维-奇维塔符号。 S2 与 Sz的本征值(用狄拉克符号表示)为:
其中
。
然而与轨道角动量所不同的是,自旋的本征矢量不是球谐函数,它们不是 θ 和 φ 的函数,而且 s 与 m 不能取半整数值也只是一种约定,没有具体的含义。
除了其它性质以外,量子力学描述的所有粒子具有内禀自旋(尽管可能出现量子数S = 0的情况)。自旋量子数的取值为约化普朗克常数
的整数倍或半整数倍,因此波函数可以写为
而不是
,其中σ可以取值的集合为:
,由此可以区分玻色子 (S=0, 1 , 2 , ...)和费米子 (S=1/2 , 3/2 , 5/2 , ...)。自旋角动量与轨道角动量之和为总角动量,在相互作用过程中总角动量守恒。
[编辑] 自旋与泡利不相容原理
泡利不相容原理指出,对于可分辨的N粒子体系,交换其中任意两个粒子,则有:

因此,对于玻色子,前置因子( − 1)2S可简化为+1,而对于费米子为-1。在量子力学中,所有的粒子不是玻色子就是费米子,而在相对论量子场论中存在“超对称”粒子,它们是玻色子成分和费米子成分的线性组合。对于二维体系,前置因子( − 1)2S可以取为任何模为1的复数。
电子是自旋量子数S=1/2的费米子;光子是自旋量子数S=1的玻色子。这充分说明自旋这一特性无法完全用经典的内禀轨道角动量来解释,也就是不能认为自旋是像陀螺一样的自转运动,因为轨道角动量只能导致s取整数值。电子一般情况下可以不考虑相对论效应,光子必须采用相对论来处理,而用来描述这些粒子的麦克斯韦方程组,也是满足相对论关系的。
泡利不相容原理非常重要,例如,化学家和生物学家常用的元素周期表就是遵循泡利不相容原理制订的。
[编辑] 自旋与旋转
如上所述,量子力学指出角动量沿任意方向的分量只能取一系列离散值,量子力学中最普遍的描述粒子自旋的方法是,用一个归一完备的复数集来表示内禀角动量在给定坐标轴方向投影出现的概率。例如,对于自旋1/2的粒子,用
表示角动量投影出现的概率为
和
,它们满足:
由于这些复数的取值依赖于坐标轴的选取,坐标轴转动变换可以是非平凡的,因此要求采用线性的变换法则,以便将所有的转动通过一个矩阵联系起来,这要求变换必须满足乘法运算,而且必须保持内积不变,因此变换矩阵应当满足:
用数学语言表述,这些矩阵是SO(3)群的幺正表示,每一个这样的表示对应于SU(2)群的一个表示(SO(3)群是SU(2)群的子群),SU(2)群的每一个不可约表示对应一个维度。例如,自旋1/2的粒子在二维表示下作转动变换,可以用泡利矩阵表示为:
其中 α,β,γ 为 欧拉角.
同样地,可以用高维群表示描述粒子的高阶自旋变换,参见泡利矩阵相关章节。
[编辑] 自旋与洛仑兹变换
我们可以在洛仑兹变换下研究自旋的行为,但与SO(3)群不同,洛仑兹群SO(3,1)是非紧致的,不存在有限维幺正表示。
对于自旋1/2的粒子,有可能构造出保持内积不变的有限维表示。将每个粒子用一个四元狄拉克自旋量ψ来表示,这些旋量在洛仑兹变换下遵守如下规则:
其中γμ为伽马矩阵,ωμν是一个反对称的
矩阵,它将洛仑兹变换参数化。我们可以看到内积表示
保持不变。由于表示矩阵是非正定的,因此不是幺正表示。
[编辑] 泡利矩阵和自旋算符
对于自旋为-1/2的情形, σx, σy和 σz为三个泡利矩阵,表示为
[编辑] 沿x, y和 z 轴的自旋测量
每个泡利矩阵的哈密顿量有两个本征值:+1和-1。相应的归一化本征矢量为:
,
,
.
根据量子力学基本假设,测量沿x,y或z轴的电子自旋的实验只能得到相应坐标轴上自旋算符(Sx, Sy, Sz)的本征值:
和
粒子的量子态可以用一个具有两个分量的自旋量来表示:
当测量给定坐标轴方向(这里取为x轴)的自旋时,测量到自旋为
的概率恰好为
。相应的测量到自旋为
的概率恰好为
。经过测量,粒子的自旋将塌缩到相应的本征态。结果导致,如果粒子在给定坐标轴方向的自旋已经被测量出确定的值,所有的测量将得到相同的本征值(因为
,依此类推),只要其它坐标轴方向的自旋还没有被测量。
[编辑] 沿任意轴的自旋测量
沿任意方向的自旋算符很容易从泡利矩阵导出,令u = (ux,uy,uz)为任意单位矢量,则沿该方向的自旋算符为
,算符σu具有本征值
。对于高自旋态,沿任意方向的自旋算符可以通过它与x,y,z轴三个方向的矢量的内积来确定。
对于自旋-1/2的粒子,一个沿(ux,uy,uz)方向的正交的自旋子为(除了导致0/0的自旋态):
确定上述自旋子的一般方法:将矩阵σu对角化,求取与本征值相应的本征矢量,这样的本征矢量就可以作为自旋子。
[编辑] 自旋测量的相容性
由于泡利矩阵是反交换的,因此沿不同方向测量的自旋是不相容的,例如,在我们已知x轴方向的自旋的情况下,测量沿y轴方向的自旋,这样会将我们先前在x轴方向的测量结果否定。这可以从泡利矩阵的本征矢量(本征态)中看出来:
因此,假如我们测量到沿x轴方向的自旋是
,这个粒子的自旋将塌缩为本征态
;当我们接着测量y轴方向的自旋时,自旋本征态将塌缩到
或者
,塌缩到这两个本征态的概率都是
,可以认为这是测量到了
。当我们再次测量沿x轴的自旋,测量到
或者
的概率各为
(
和
),这说明我们最初沿x轴方向的测量不再正确,因为此时沿x轴方向测量的自旋得到两种本征值的概率是相等的。
[编辑] 应用
自旋的直接的应用包括:核磁共振谱、电子顺磁共振谱、质子密度的磁共振成像,以及巨磁电阻硬盘磁头。自旋可能的应用有自旋场效应晶体管等。以电子自旋为研究对象,发展创新磁性材料和器件的学科分支称为自旋电子学。





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